## Sunday, May 18, 2014

### [HLSL] Turning float4's into a float4x4

In one of my vertex shaders I need to turn a couple float4's into a float4x4. Specifically, I'm building a world matrix. (For those that are curious, it's instance data. The design I'm using is very similar to the one put forth by DICE on slide 29)

If the float4's are rows, then building a float4x4 is really easy:

float4x4 CreateMatrixFromRows(float4 r0, float4 r1, float4 r2, float4 r3) {
return float4x4(r0, r1, r2, r3);
}


float4x4 has a constructor that takes vectors as arguments. However, as you can see above, it assumes these are rows. I find this a bit odd since internally, DirectX, by default stores matrices as column-major. Therefore, behind the scenes, it will have to do lots of swizzle copy-swaps.

If the float4's are columns, building the float4x4 becomes a bit more icky for our viewing, since we have to manually pick off each element and send it to the full float4x4 constructor. However, I suspect behind the scenes the compiler will know better.

float4x4 CreateMatrixFromCols(float4 c0, float4 c1, float4 c2, float4 c3) {
return float4x4(c0.x, c1.x, c2.x, c3.x,
c0.y, c1.y, c2.y, c3.y,
c0.z, c1.z, c2.z, c3.z,
c0.w, c1.w, c2.w, c3.w);
}

I wasn't happy with just guessing what the compiler would and wouldn't do, so I created a simple HLSL vertex shader to see how many OPs each function produced. hlsli_util.hlsli contains the two functions defined above. (Yes, I know the position isn't being transformed to clip space. It's just a trivial shader)

#include "hlsl_util.hlsli"

cbuffer cbPerObject : register(b1) {
uint gStartVector;
uint gNumVectorsPerInstance;
};

StructuredBuffer<float4> gInstanceBuffer : register(t0);

float4 main(float3 pos : POSITION, uint instanceId : SV_INSTANCEID) : SV_POSITION {
uint worldMatrixOffset = instanceId * gNumVectorsPerInstance + gStartVector;

float4 c0 = gInstanceBuffer[worldMatrixOffset];
float4 c1 = gInstanceBuffer[worldMatrixOffset + 1];
float4 c2 = gInstanceBuffer[worldMatrixOffset + 2];
float4 c3 = gInstanceBuffer[worldMatrixOffset + 3];

float4x4 instanceWorldCol = CreateMatrixFromCols(c0, c1, c2, c3);
//float4x4 instanceWorldRow = CreateMatrixFromRows(c0, c1, c2, c3);

return mul(float4(pos, 1.0f), instanceWorldCol);
}


I compiled the shader as normal and then used the following command to disassemble the compiled byte code:

fxc.exe /dumpbin /Fc <outputfile.txt> <compiledshader.cso>


HUGE DISCLAIMER: This is the intermediate asm that fxc creates. The final number/form of OPs will depend on the final compile done by the graphics driver. However, I feel the intermediate asm will generally be close-ish to what is finally produced, and therefore, can be used as a rough gauge.

Here is the asm code for creating the matrix from columns. I'll include the register signature for this one. The other asm code samples use the same register signature.

// Resource Bindings:
//
// Name                                 Type  Format         Dim Slot Elements
// ------------------------------ ---------- ------- ----------- ---- --------
// gInstanceBuffer                   texture  struct         r/o    0        1
// cbPerObject                       cbuffer      NA          NA    1        1
//
//
// Input signature:
//
// Name                 Index   Mask Register SysValue  Format   Used
// -------------------- ----- ------ -------- -------- ------- ------
// POSITION                 0   xyz         0     NONE   float   xyz
// SV_INSTANCEID            0   x           1   INSTID    uint   x
//
//
// Output signature:
//
// Name                 Index   Mask Register SysValue  Format   Used
// -------------------- ----- ------ -------- -------- ------- ------
// SV_POSITION              0   xyzw        0      POS   float   xyzw
//

ld_structured_indexable(structured_buffer, stride=16)(mixed,mixed,mixed,mixed) r1.xyzw, r0.x, l(0), t0.xyzw
iadd r0.xyz, r0.xxxx, l(1, 2, 3, 0)
mov r2.xyz, v0.xyzx
mov r2.w, l(1.000000)
dp4 o0.x, r2.xyzw, r1.xyzw
ld_structured_indexable(structured_buffer, stride=16)(mixed,mixed,mixed,mixed) r1.xyzw, r0.x, l(0), t0.xyzw
dp4 o0.y, r2.xyzw, r1.xyzw
ld_structured_indexable(structured_buffer, stride=16)(mixed,mixed,mixed,mixed) r1.xyzw, r0.y, l(0), t0.xyzw
ld_structured_indexable(structured_buffer, stride=16)(mixed,mixed,mixed,mixed) r0.xyzw, r0.z, l(0), t0.xyzw
dp4 o0.w, r2.xyzw, r0.xyzw
dp4 o0.z, r2.xyzw, r1.xyzw
ret
// Approximately 13 instruction slots used


Creating the matrix from columns was actually very clean. The compiler knew what we wanted and completely got rid of all the swizzles, and rather just directly copied each column and did a dot product to get the final position.

Here is the asm for creating the matrix from rows:

imad r0.x, v1.x, cb1[8].y, cb1[8].x
ld_structured_indexable(structured_buffer, stride=16)(mixed,mixed,mixed,mixed) r1.xyzw, r0.x, l(0), t0.xyzw
iadd r0.xyz, r0.xxxx, l(1, 2, 3, 0)
mov r2.x, r1.x
ld_structured_indexable(structured_buffer, stride=16)(mixed,mixed,mixed,mixed) r3.xyzw, r0.x, l(0), t0.xzyw
mov r2.y, r3.x
ld_structured_indexable(structured_buffer, stride=16)(mixed,mixed,mixed,mixed) r4.xyzw, r0.y, l(0), t0.xywz
ld_structured_indexable(structured_buffer, stride=16)(mixed,mixed,mixed,mixed) r0.xyzw, r0.z, l(0), t0.xyzw
mov r2.z, r4.x
mov r2.w, r0.x
mov r5.xyz, v0.xyzx
mov r5.w, l(1.000000)
dp4 o0.x, r5.xyzw, r2.xyzw
mov r2.y, r3.z
mov r2.z, r4.y
mov r2.w, r0.y
mov r2.x, r1.y
dp4 o0.y, r5.xyzw, r2.xyzw
mov r4.y, r3.w
mov r3.z, r4.w
mov r3.w, r0.z
mov r4.w, r0.w
mov r3.x, r1.z
mov r4.x, r1.w
dp4 o0.w, r5.xyzw, r4.xyzw
dp4 o0.z, r5.xyzw, r3.xyzw
ret
// Approximately 27 instruction slots used


Wow! Look at all those mov OPs. So even though the HLSL constructor expects rows, giving it rows leads to huge number of mov's because the GPU uses column-major matrix representation.

I also tried manually specifying the swizzles to see if that would help:

float4x4 CreateMatrixFromRows(float4 r0, float4 r1, float4 r2, float4 r3) {
return float4x4(r0.x, r0.y, r0.z, r0.w,
r1.x, r1.y, r1.z, r1.w,
r2.x, r2.y, r2.z, r2.w,
r3.x, r3.y, r3.z, r3.w);
}


However, the asm generated was identical to the constructor with 4 row vectors.

So I guess the lesson learned here today is to always try to construct matrices in the way that they are stored. I want to mention that you can tell the compiler to use Row-major matrices, but Col-major matrices are generally favored because it can simplify some matrix math.

My question to you all is: Are there better ways to do either of these two operations? As always, feel free to comment, ask questions, correct any errors I may have made, etc.

Happy coding
-RichieSams

## Tuesday, May 6, 2014

### How to do you implement Geometry Instancing?

So at some point in the graphics pipeline, you have a list of models that need to rendered. Normal scenario:
1. Set the CBuffer variables
2. Call DrawIndexed

Simple. Ok next scenario is if the models are instanced. Yes I can use DrawIndexedInstanced, but my question is: What's the best way to send the instance data to the GPU?

#### So far, I can think of 3 ways:

Option 1 - Storing and using one Instance Buffer per model

The render loop would then be something like this:

for (model in scene) {
if (model.hasInstances()) {
if (model.isDynamic()) {
model.UpdateInstanceBuffer(....);
}
model.DrawIndexedInstanced(....);
} else {
model.DrawIndexed(...);
}
}


Option 2 - Using a single Instance buffer for the entire scene and updating it for each draw call

The render loop would then be something like this:

for (model in scene) {
if (model.hasInstances()) {
UpdateInstanceBuffer(&model.InstanceData, ....);

model.DrawIndexedInstanced(....);
} else {
model.DrawIndexed(...);
}
}


Option 3 - Caching instances into a buffer for an entire batch (or if memory requirements aren't a problem, the whole frame). Directly inspired by Battlefield 3 - slide 30.

The render loop would then be something like this:

std::vector instanceData;
std::vector offsets;

for (instancedModel in scene) {
offsets.push_back(instanceData.size());
for (float4 data in model.InstanceData) {

}
}

BindInstanceBufferAsVSResource(&instanceData);

uint instanceOffset = 0;
for (uint i = 0; i < scene.size(); ++i) {
UpdateVSCBuffer(offsets[i], ....);

model.DrawIndexedInstanced(....);
}


#### Pros and Cons:

Option 1 - Individual InstanceBuffers per model
Pros:
1. Static instancing is all cached, ie. you only have to map/update/unmap a buffer once.
Cons:
1. A ton of instance buffers. I may be over thinking things, but this seems like a lot of memory. Especially since all buffers are static size. So you either have to define exactly how many instances of an object can exist, or include some extra memory for wiggle room.
Option 2 - Single InstanceBuffer for all models
Pros:
1. Only one instance buffer. Potentially a much smaller memory footprint than Option 1. However, we need it to be as large as our largest number of instances.
Cons:
1. Requires a map/update/unmap for every model that needs to be instanced. I have no idea if this is expensive or not.
Option 3 - CBuffer array with all the instances for a frame/batch
Pros:
1. Much less map/update/unmap than Option 2
2. Can support multiple types of instance buffers (as long as they are multiples of float4)
Cons:
1. Static instances still need to be update every frame.
2. Indexes out of a cbuffer. (Can cause memory contention)

So those are my thoughts. What are your thoughts? Would you choose any of the three options? Or is there a better option? Let me know if the comments below or on Twitter or with a Pastebin/Gist.

Happy coding
-RichieSams

## Monday, May 5, 2014

### Loading more interesting scenes - Part 2: The Halfling Model File Format

Well, it's been quite a long time since my last post. School is in the last week and I've been quite busy, but you don't want to hear about that. You're here to see what I've been working on.

In my last post I finished by showing how I loaded obj models directly into the engine. I also complained that it was taking a horrendously long time to load (especially for Debug builds). I looked around for faster ways to load obj's, but there really weren't any... (sort of*) Why aren't there any obj loader libraries?
*There is assimp, but I'll get to that further down

One answer would be that OBJs weren't designed for run-time model loading. Computers don't like parsing text. They would rather read binary; things have set sizes and can be read in chunks rather than single characters at a time. So next I looked around for a binary file format that would be faster to load. "Why re-invent the wheel" I thought?

The problem is that standardized run-time binary file formats don't really exist either. This when it really dawned on me. For run-time, there's no point in storing things your engine doesn't need. And more than that, it would be great if the data you store is in the correct format for your engine. For example, you could store the raw vertex buffer data so you can directly cast it into DirectX vertex buffer data. Obviously, it would be extremely hard to get people to agree upon a set standard of what is "necessary", so it's common practice to have a specific binary file format for the engine that is specifically tailored to make loading the data as fast and easy as possible.

Therefore, I set out to make my own binary file format, which, to stay with the Halfling theme, I dubbed the 'Halfling Model File'. Every indent represents a member variable of the level above it. 'String data' and 'Subset data' are arrays. (The format of the blog template makes the following table a bit hard to read. There is an ASCII version of the table here if that's easier to read)

 Item Type Required Description File Id '\0FMH' T Little-endian "HMF\0" File format version byte T Version of the HMF format that this file uses Flags uint64 T Bitwise-OR of flags used in the file. See the flags below String Table F Num strings uint32 T The number of strings in the table String data T String length uint16 T Length of the string String char[] T The string characters. DOES NOT HAVE A NULL TERMINATION Num Vertices uint32 T The number of vertices in the file Num Indices uint32 T The number of indices in the file NumVertexElements uint16 T The number of elements in the vertex description Vertex Buffer Desc D3D11_BUFFER_DESC T A hard cast of the vertex buffer description Index Buffer Desc D3D11_BUFFER_DESC T A hard cast of the index buffer description Instance Buffer Desc D3D11_BUFFER_DESC F A hard cast of the instance buffer description Vertex data void[] T Will be read in a single block using VertexBufferDesc.ByteWidth Index data void[] T Will be read in a single block using IndexBufferDesc.ByteWidth Instance buffer data void[] F Will be read in a single block using InstanceBufferDesc.ByteWidth Num Subsets uint32 T The number of subsets in the file Subset data Subset[] T Will read in a single block to a Subset[] Vertex Start uint64 T The index to the first vertex used by the subset Vertex Count uint64 T The number of vertices used by the subset (All used vertices must be in the range VertexStart + VertexCount) Index Start uint64 T The index to the first index used by the subset Index Count uint64 T The number of indices used by the subset (All used indices must be in the range IndexStart + IndexCount) Material Ambient Color float[3] T The RGB ambient color values of the material Material Specular Intensity float T The Specular Intensity Material Diffuse Color float[4] T The RGBA diffuse color values of the material Material Specular Color float[3] T The RGB specular color values of the material Material Specular Power float T The Specular Power Diffuse Color Map Filename int32 T An index to the string table. -1 if it doesn't exist. Specular Color Map Filename int32 T An index to the string table. -1 if it doesn't exist. Specular Power Map Filename int32 T An index to the string table. -1 if it doesn't exist. Alpha Map Filename int32 T An index to the string table. -1 if it doesn't exist. Bump Map Filename int32 T An index to the string table. -1 if it doesn't exist. Mutually exclusive with Normal Map Normal Map Filename int32 T An index to the string table. -1 if it doesn't exist. Mutually exclusive with Bump Map

I designed the file format to make it as easy as possible to cast large chunks of memory directly from hard disk to arrays or usable engine structures. For example, the subset data is read in one giant chunk and cast directly to an array.

There's only one problem: Binary is not really human-readable. It would be extremely arduous to create a HMF file manually, so I created a tool to automate the task. While my hand-written obj-parser fulfilled its purpose, it's was pretty bare-bones and made quite a few assumptions. Rather than spend the time to beef it up to what was necessary, I leveraged the wonderful tool ASSIMP. ASSIMP is a C++ library for loading arbitrary model file formats into a standard internal representation. It also has a number of algorithms for optimizing the model data. For example, calculating normals, triangulating meshes, or removing duplicate vertices. Therefore, I use ASSIMP to load and optimize the model, then I output ASSIMP's mesh data to the HMF format. The source code is a bit too long to directly post here, so instead I'll link you to it on GitHub. I'll also point you to a pre-compiled binary of the tool here.

As I was writing the the code for the tool, it became apparent that I needed a way for the user to tell the tool certain parameters about the mode. For example, what textures do you want to use? I could have passed these in with command line arguments, but that's not very readable. Therefore, I put all the possible arguments into an ini file and then have the user pass the path to the ini file in as a command line arg. Below is the ini file for the sponza.obj model:

[Post-Processing]
; If normals already exist, setting GenNormals to true will do nothing
GenNormals = true
; If tangents already exist, setting GenNormals to true will do nothing
CalcTangents = true

; The booleans represent a high level override for these material properties.
; If the boolean is false, the property will be set to NULL, even if the property
; exists within the input model file
; If the boolean is true, but the value doesn't exist within the input model file,
; the property will be set to NULL
[MaterialPropertyOverrides]
AmbientColor = true
DiffuseColor = true
SpecColor = true
Opacity = true
SpecPower = true
SpecIntensity = true

; The booleans represent a high level override for these textures.
; If the boolean is false, the texture will be excluded, even if the texture
; exists within the input model file
; If the boolean is true, but the texture doesn't exist within the input model
; file properties, the texture will still be excluded
[TextureOverrides]
DiffuseColorMap = true
NormalMap = true
DisplacementMap = true
AlphaMap = true
SpecColorMap = true
SpecPowerMap = true

; Usages can be 'default', 'immutable', 'dynamic', or 'staging'
; In the case of a mis-spelling, immutable is assumed
[BufferDesc]
VertexBufferUsage = immutable
IndexBufferUsage = immutable

; TextureMapRedirects allow you to interpret certain textures as other kinds
; For example, OBJ doesn't directly support normal maps. Often, you will then see
; the normal map in the height (bump) map slot. These options allow you to specify
; what texture goes where.
;
; Any Maps that are excluded are treated as mapping to their own kind
; IE. excluding DiffuseColorMap is interpreted as:
;       DiffuseColorMap = diffuse
;
; The available kinds are: 'diffuse', 'normal', 'height', 'displacement', 'alpha',
; 'specColor', and 'specPower'
[TextureMapRedirects]
DiffuseColorMap = diffuse
NormalMap = height
DisplacementMap = displacement
AlphaMap = alpha
SpecColorMap = specColor
SpecPowerMap = specPower


So with that we now have a fully functioning binary file format! And more than that, with a few changes in the engine code, we can load the scene cold in less than 2 seconds! (It's almost instant if your file cache is still hot). (Pre-compiled binaries here).

Well that's it for now. As always, feel free to ask questions and comment.

Happy coding
-RichieSams

## Friday, March 14, 2014

When I finished the Deferred Shading Demo, I started looking at how Forward and Deferred differed in terms of frame-time and frame quality. I couldn't see any noticable differences in frame quality, which is good. But, forward shading was upwards of 2ms cheaper than deferred (depending on the camera position)!! I thought deferred shading was supposed to be better than forward?!?!?

At first I though my implementation was wrong, or that there was a bug in my code. But then it slowly dawned on me what the problem was. If you recall, the whole point to deferred is reducing the number of pixels that are shaded. A large majority of this is not shading pixels that are occluded (they fail the z-test). However, with my simple geometry, there are very few camera positions in which ANY geometry is occluded. Thus deferred shading just adds overhead.

So with this in mind I started looking for more complex scenes to test my code against. After a bit of searching I found Morgan McGuire's amazing Computer Graphics Data database. He has a good 20 some-odd scenes that he's personally maintained. (As most of them are no longer even available in their original form). Huge props to him and any others involved in the project.

Anyway, I downloaded the popular Crytek Sponza Scene in obj form. Awesome. Now what? Well, now I needed to load obj in Vertex and Index buffers. I looked around to see if there was any library to do it for me (why re-invent the wheel?), but I only found a smattering of thrown together code. Well and assimp. But assimp seemed a bit large for a temporary obj loader. More on that later. So with that said, I used the code here as a starting point, and created my own obj loader.

First off, obj files are HARD to parse. Mostly because they're so flexible. And being a text-based format, parsing text is just not fun. Ok, so maybe they're not HARD, but they're not easy either. The first major roadblock is that obj allows you to specify all the parts of a vertex separately.

#### Separate vertex definitions

For example:

v  476.1832 128.5883 224.4587
vn -0.9176 -0.3941 -0.0529
vt 0.1674 0.8760 0.0000


The 'v' represents the vertex position, the 'vn' represents the vertex normal, and the 'vt' represents the vertex texture coordinates. Indices can then choose whichever grouping of position, normal, and texture coordinates they need. Like this:

f 140/45/140 139/18/139 1740/17/1852


This is especially handy if large portions of your scene have the same surface normals, like square buildings. Then you only have to store a single 'vn' for all the vertices sharing the same normal.

HOWEVER, while this is great for storage, DirectX expects a vertex to be a singular unit, AKA, position, normal, AND texture coordinate all together. (Yes, you can store them in separate Vertex Buffers, but then you run into cache misses and data incoherence) I chose to work around it like this:

I use these data structures to hold the data:
std::vector<Vertex> vertices;
std::vector<uint> indices;

typedef std::tuple<uint, uint, uint> TupleUInt3;
std::unordered_map<TupleUInt3, uint> vertexMap;

std::vector<DirectX::XMFLOAT3> vertPos;
std::vector<DirectX::XMFLOAT3> vertNorm;
std::vector<DirectX::XMFLOAT2> vertTexCoord;


• When reading vertex data ('v', 'vn', 'vt'), the data is read into its corresponding vector.
• Then, when reading indices, the code creates a true Vertex and adds it to vertices. I use the unordered_map to check if the vertex already exists before creating a new one:

TupleUInt3 vertexTuple{posIndex, texCoordIndex, normalIndex};

auto iter = vertexMap.find(vertexTuple);
if (iter != vertexMap.end()) {
// We found a match
indices.push_back(iter->second);
} else {
// No match. Make a new one
uint index = meshData->Vertices.size();
vertexMap[vertexTuple] = index;

DirectX::XMFLOAT3 position = posIndex == 0 ? DirectX::XMFLOAT3(0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f) : vertPos[posIndex - 1];
DirectX::XMFLOAT3 normal = normalIndex == 0 ? DirectX::XMFLOAT3(0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f) : vertNorm[normalIndex - 1];
DirectX::XMFLOAT2 texCoord = texCoordIndex == 0 ? DirectX::XMFLOAT2(0.0f, 0.0f) : vertTexCoord[texCoordIndex - 1];

vertices.push_back(Vertex(position, normal, texCoord));
indices.push_back(index);
}


Success! On to the next roadblock!

#### N-gons

Obj supports all polygons; you just add more indices to the face definition:

f 140/45/140 139/18/139 1740/17/1852 1784/25/429 1741/35/141


Again, this is extremely handy for reducing storage space. For example, if two triangles are are co-planar, you can combine them into a quad, etc. HOWEVER, DirectX only supports triangles. Therefore, we have to triangulate any faces that have more than 3 vertices. Triangulation can be quite complicated, depending on what assumptions you choose to make. However, I chose to assume that all polygons are convex, which makes life significantly easier. Following the algorithm in Braynzar Soft's code, you can triangulate by making triangles with the first vertex, the next vertex and the previous vertex. For example, let's choose this pentagon:

We would then form triangles like so:
So the triangles are:

• 0 1 2
• 0 2 3
• 0 3 4

The code can be found here. One note before I move on: This way of triangulating is definitely not optimal for high N-gons; it will create long skinny triangles, which is bad for rasterizers. However, it serves its purpose for now, so it will stay.

#### Normals

It's perfectly legal for an face in obj to not use normals:

f 1270/3828 1261/3831 1245/3829


Similarly, you can have a face that doesn't use texture coordinates:

f -486096//-489779 -482906//-486570 -482907//-486571


(You'll also notice that you can use negative indices, which correspond to the index (1 - current number of vertices). But that's an easy thing to work around). The problem is normals. My shader code assumes that a vertex has a valid normal. If it doesn't, the default initialization to (0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f) makes the whole object black. Granted, I could add some checks in the shader, where if the normal is all zero, just use the material color, but this just adds dynamic branching and in reality, there shouldn't be any faces that don't have normals.

So the first thing I tried is 'manually' calculating the vertex normals using this approach. The approach uses the cross product of two sides of a triangle to get the face normal, then averages all the face normals for faces sharing the same vertex. Simple, but it takes FOREVER. The first time I tried it, it ran for 10 minutes.... Granted, it is O(N12 + N2), where N1 is the number of vertices and N2 is the number of faces. The Sponza scene has 184,330 triangles and 262,267 faces. Therefore, I resolved to do the normal calculations once, and then re-create the obj with those normals. I'll get to that in a bit.

#### Vectors

After creating the basic obj loader I did some crude profiling and found some interesting behavior. When compiled for "Release", the obj loader ran 1 - 2 magnitudes of time faster. After much searching, I found out that in "Release", the VC++ compiler turns off a bunch of run-time checks on vectors. These checks are really good, in that they give improved iterator checks and various useful debug checks. However, they're really really slow. You can turn them off with compiler preprocessor defines, but I wouldn't. But just something to be aware of.

So that's obj's. With that all done, I can now load interesting models! Yay!!

But even in "Release", the scene still takes ~4 seconds to load on my beefy computer. Hmmm.... Well the first thing I did was to put the obj parsing into a separate thread so the main window was still interactive.

I also sleep the main thread in 50ms intervals to give the background thread as many cycles as it can. I need to do some further testing to see if sleeping the main thread affects child threads. This is using std::thread. I wouldn't think it would, but it doesn't hurt to test. Let me know your thoughts.

Well, that's it for now. I'll cover some of the specifics of what changed in the renderer from Deferred Shading Demo to Obj Loader Demo in the next post, but this post is getting to be a bit long. As always, feel free to comment or leave suggestions.

-RichieSams

## Monday, March 10, 2014

### Introducing the Halfling Project

Hello everyone!

It's been entirely too long since I've posted about what I've been working on. Granted, I did make a post a couple weeks ago about Git, but that was mostly for my class. So here goes!

We last left off with me wrapping up GSoC with ScummVM. I have since joined the ScummVM dev team (Yay!) and my current progress on the ZVision engine was merged into the master branch. Unfortunately, due to school keeping me quite busy and another project, I haven't had much time to work more on the engine. That said, it's not abandoned! I'm planning on working more on it after I graduate in August.

I have always been quite fascinated by computer graphics, especially in the algorithms that make real-time graphics possible. Wanting to get into the field, I started teaching myself DirectX 11 last December using Frank Luna's wonderful book, An Introduction to 3D Game Programming with DirectX 11. However, rather than just using his base code, I chose to create my own rendering framework, and thus The Halfling Project was born.

"Why re-invent the wheel?", you ask? Because it forces me to fully understand the graphics concepts, rather than just copy-pasting cookie-cutter code. Also, no matter how recent a tutorial is, there is bound to be some code that is out of date. For example, Frank Luna's code uses .fx files and the D3DX library. Effect files can still be used, but Microsoft discourages it. And the D3DX library doesn't exist anymore. Granted it has a replacement (DirectXMath), but it has a slightly different API. Thus, even if I were to 'copy-paste', I would still have to change the code to fit the new standards.

That said, I didn't come up with everything from scratch. The Halfling Project is heavily influenced by Luna's code, MJP's sample framework, and Glenn Fiedler's blog posts. Overall, The Halfling Project is just a collection of demos that happen to use the same base framework. So, with that in mind, let me describe some of the demos and what I plan for the future.

(If you would like to try out the demos for yourself, there are compiled binaries in my Git repo. You will need a DirectX11 capable graphics card or integrated graphics and will need to install the VS C++ 120 redistributable, which is included with the demos.)

### Crate Demo:

My "Hello World" of DirectX 11! Ha ha! So much code for a colored box.... I can't tell you how happy I was when it worked though!

Me: "Look! Look what I made!"
My roommate: "What? It's a box."
Me: "But.... it was hard..."

I guess he had a point though. On to more interesting things!

### Wave Simulation Demo:

So the next thing to change was to make the geometry a bit more interesting. I borrowed a wave simulation algorithm from Frank Luna's code and created this demo. Each update, it applies the wave equation to each vertex and updates the Vertex Buffer.

### Lighting Demo:

So now we had some interesting geometry, now it was time for some lights! Well, one light...

I actually didn't use the wave simulation geometry because it required a dynamic vertex buffer. (Yes I know you could do it with a static buffer and transformations, but baby steps) Instead, I borrowed another function from Frank Luna's code that used sin/cos to create hills. The lighting is a forward renderer using Lambert diffuse lighting and Blinn-Phong specular lighting. Rather than bore you with my own re-hash of what's already written, I will point you to Google.

1. The application submits all the triangles it wants rendered to the GPU.
2. The hardware rasterizer turns the triangles into pixels and sends them off to the pixel shader
3. The pixel shader applies any lighting equations you have
• Assuming no light culling, this means the lighting equation is invoked
((# pixels from submitted triangles) x (# lights)) times
4. The output merger rejects pixels that fail the depth test and does pixel blending if blending is enabled

• GBuffer Pass:
1. The application submits all the triangles it wants rendered to the GPU.
2. The hardware rasterizer turns the triangles into pixels and sends them off to the pixel shader
3. The pixel shader stores the pixel data in a series of texture buffers called Geometry Buffers or GBuffers for short
• GBuffer contents vary by implementation, mostly depending on your lighting equation in the second pass
• Common data is World Position, Surface Normal, Diffuse Color, Specular Color, and Specular Power
4. The output merger rejects pixels that fail the depth test. Blending is NOT allowed.
• Lighting Pass:
1. The application renders a fullscreen quad, guaranteeing a pixel shader thread for every pixel on the screen
2. The pixel shader samples the GBuffers for the data it needs to light the pixel
3. Then applies the lighting equation and returns the final color
• Assuming no light culling, this means the lighting equation is invoked
((# pixels on screen) x (# lights)) times
4. The output merger is pretty much a pass-though, as we don't use a depth buffer for this pass.

#### So what's the difference? Why go through all that extra work?

Deferred Shading invokes the lighting equation fewer times (generally)

In the past 10 years, there has been a push to make real-time graphics more and more realistic. A massive part of realism is lighting. But, lighting is usually THE most expensive calculation for a scene. In forward shading, you calculate lighting for each and every pixel that the rasterizer creates. However, depending on your scene, a large number of these pixels will be rejected by the depth test. Thus, a large number of calculations were *wasted* in a sense. Granted there are ways around this, but they aren't perfect and I'll leave that for future exploration. Thus, deferred shading effectively separates scene complexity and lighting complexity.

This all said, deferred shading isn't the cure-all for everything; it does have some significant draw-backs
1. It requires a large* amount of bandwidth and memory to store the GBuffers
• Large is a relative term. It ultimately depends on what platform you're targeting
2. It requires hardware that allows multiple render targets
• Somewhat of a moot point with today's hardware, but still something to watch for
3. No hardware anti-aliasing.
4. No transparent geometry / blending

#### So how is my deferred shading demo implemented?

GBuffers:
 Albedo-MaterialIndex DXGI_FORMAT_R8G8B8A8_UNORM Normal DXGI_FORMAT_R16G16_FLOAT Depth DXGI_FORMAT_R32_FLOAT

8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
Albedo Red Albedo Green Albedo Blue Material Index
Normal Phi Normal Theta
Depth

 Albedo Stores the RGB diffuse color read from texture mapping MaterialIndex An offset index to a global material array in the shader Normal The fragment surface unit normal stored in spherical coordinates. (We don't store radius since we know it's 1 for a unit normal) Depth The hardware depth buffer. It stores (1 - z/w). By swapping the depth planes, we spread the depth precision out more evenly.

Converting the normal to/from spherical coordinates is just some trig, but here is the code I use. Note: My code assumes that the GBuffer can handle non-uniform data. (AKA, potentially outside the range [0, 1])

I use the depth buffer to calculate the world position of the pixel. The basic principle is that since we know the position of the pixel on the screen, using that, the depth, and the inverse ViewProjection matrix, we can calculate the world postion. I'll point you here and here for more information.

So you managed to get through all that, let me reward you with a video and some screenshots. :)

With 500 point lights and 500 spot lights

Visualizing the GBuffers

And one last one to show you that the depth buffer does actually have data in it:

Well that's it for now! I have another demo I'm working on right now, but I'll leave that for another post. If you want a sneak peak, there is a build of it in my repo.

As always, feel free to ask questions and leave comments or suggestions.

-RichieSams

## Wednesday, January 22, 2014

### Getting Started with Git

We're using Git in my Elements of Databases class this semester, so I though I would put together a crash course for Git. So here goes!

### What is Git?

TL;DR explanation of what Git is:
Git was designed to allow multiple users to work on the same project as the same time.
It also serves as a way to save and display your work history.

### First things first

There are various ways you can use git (command line, SourceTree, GitHub client, TortoiseGit, or some combination). My personal preference is SourceTree for mostly everything, TortoiseGit for merge conflicts, and command line only when necessary.

So the first step is to download and install the software that you would like to use. I am going to be showing SourceTree, but it should be a similar process for other programs.

Run the exe and follow the directions.

### Setting up SourceTree

1. When you first start SourceTree, it will ask you where git is installed.
2. If it's not installed, then it can do it for you if you click "Download an embedded version of Git"
3. Next it will ask you about Mercurial. You can just say "I don't want to use Mercurial"
4. You will then be presented with this:
5. Fill our your name and email. This is the information that will show up when you commit.
6. Leave the two checkboxes checked.
• The first allows SourceTree to automatically update git configurations when you change options within SourceTree.
• The second makes sure all your line endings are the same, so there are no conflicts if you move from Windows to Mac, Linux to Windows, etc.
7. Accept SourceTree's Licence Agreement and Click "Next"
8. This next dialog box is for if you use SSH. This can be set up later if you choose to use it. In the meantime, just press "Next" and then "No"
9. The last dialog box gives you the opportunity to sign into any repository sites you use. This makes cloning repositories much easier and faster.
10. Click "Finish" and you should be in SourceTree proper:

### Creating a Repository

So now you have everything installed, let's actually get into usage. The first thing you'll want to do is create a repository.  You can think of this as a giant box to hold all your code and changes. So let's head over to GitHub. Once you've logged in, you should see something similar to this:

1. Click the green, "New repository" button on the right-hand side of the web page. The page should look something like this:
2. Name the repository and, if you would like, add a description.
3. Click the radio button next to "Private", since all our class repos need to be private
4. Click on the combobox labelled "Add git ignore" and select Python. Github will then automatically create a .gitignore files for us.
• A '.gitignore' file tells git what type of files or directories we don't want to store in our repository.
5. Finally, click "Create repository"

### Cloning a Repository

Now that we've created the repository, we want a copy of it on our local machine.
1. Open up SourceTree
2. Click the button in the top left corner of the program called "Clone/New"
3. You should get something that looks like this:
4. If you logged in with your GitHub account earlier, you can press the Globe-looking button to list all your repositories.
1. Just select the one you want to clone and press OK.
2. Otherwise, go to the repository on GitHub and copy the url labelled "HTTPS clone url"
• (You can use SSH if you want, but that's beyond the scope of this tutorial)
3. Paste the url into SourceTree
5. Click on the ellipses button next to "Destination path" and select an ***EMPTY*** folder where you want your local copy to reside.
6. Click "Clone"

### Basic Git Usage

Now let's get into the basic usage of git

Let's add a python file with some basic code. So browse to the folder that you just created and create a file called hello.py. Open it with your favorite editor and write a basic Hello World.

Ok now that we've created this file, let's add it to our repository. So let's go over to SourceTree.

1. Make sure you're in the "File Status" tab
• This tab lists all the changes that you've done since your last commit with a preview window on the right
2. Click on hello.py
3. Add the file to the "Stage" by clicking "Stage file" or by using the arrows in the left column.

4. Just what is the stage? Think of it as a temporary storage area where you prepare a set of changes before committing. Only the items that are on the stage will be committed. This comes in handy when you want to break changes into multiple commits. We'll see an example of that later.

5. Press the "Commit" button in the top left of SourceTree.
You should get something like this:
6. Add a message to your commit and click the "Commit" button at the bottom right-hand corner. I'll explain message formatting later.
7. Now if you go to the "Log/History" tab, you will see your new commit:

You might notice that SourceTree tells you that "master is 1 ahead". What does this mean?

When you commit, everything is local. Nothing is transmitted to GitHub. Therefore, SourceTree is telling you that your Master branch is 1 commit ahead of GitHub.

So let's fix that!
1. Click the "Push" button.
2. And press "Ok"
Now everything is synced to GitHub.

### Commit Style and Commit Message Formatting

Before I go any further I want to make a few comments on commit style and commit message formatting.

Commits should be treated as small logical changes. A stranger should be able to look at your history and know roughly what your thought process was. Also, they should be able to look at each commit and know exactly what you changed. Some examples would be "Fixed a typo on the output message" "Added an iteration counter for debug purposes"

With that in mind, Git has a standard commit message format:

<SYSTEM_NAME_IN_ALL_CAPS>: <Commit message>

[Commit body / Any additional information]


So an example would be:
COLLATZ: Added an iteration counter for debug purposes

I wanted to know how many times the function was being called
in each loop.


SYSTEM_NAME refers to whatever part of the project the commit affects. IE. SOUND_SYSTEM, GRAPHICS_MANAGER, CORE. For our class projects, we probably won't have subsystems, so we can just use the project name, ie. for this first project COLLATZ.
The commit message should be short and to the point. Any details should be put in the body of the commit.
If you have a commit body, there should be a blank line between it and the commit message.

### More Git Usage Examples

Let's do another example commit

2. Save

Now, let's commit

1. Go back to the "File Status" tab in SourceTree
2. If you look at the preview pane, you'll see the lines we added highlighted in green
However, it would make sense to split the changes into two commits. How do we do that?
1. Click on the first line you would like to add to the Stage. Holding down shift, click on the last line you want to add to the stage.
2. Now click, "Stage Selected Lines"
3. The changes moved to the Stage!
4. Commit the changes using the same instructions as before
5. Now let's stage and commit the remaining changes. You can once again select the lines you want and use "Stage Selected Lines", or you can stage the entire chunk.
• A chunk is just a group of changes that happen to be near each other.
6. Now there's an extra space that I accidentally added.
7. Rather than going to my editor to delete it, I can let git do the work.
8. Select the lines you want to discard and press "Discard Selected lines"
************ WARNING *************
Once you discard changes, they are gone forever. As in, no getting them back. So be VERY VERY careful using discard.
************ WARNING *************

### Pulling

So far, we've been the only ones on our repository. However, the whole point of using a repository is so that multiple people can work at the same time.

This is a portion of the commit history for an open source project I'm part of called ScummVM:
As you can see, there are many changes going on all the same time.

#### Let's imagine a scenario:

You and your partner Joe are working on some code at the same time. You make some changes and commit them. However, in the meantime, Joe also made some changes, commited them, and pushed them to the repository. If you try and push, git will complain, and rightfully so. You don't have the most up-to-date version of the repository. Therefore, in order to push your changes to the repository, you first need to pull Joe's changes and merge any conflicts.

How do you pull?
Just click the "Pull" button in SourceTree. Click ok and wait for git to do its work. Once it finishes, you'll notice Joe's new commit have shown up in your history. *Now* you can push.

Therefore, it's common practice to always pull before you push. Nothing will go wrong if you don't, since git will catch the error, but it's a good habit to get in.

### Tips and Tricks

#### Stashing

So say you have a group of changes that you're working on, but you want to try a different way to fix the problem. One way to approach that is by "Stashing". Stashing stores all your current changes and then reverts your code back to your last commit. Then at a later time you can restore the stash back onto your code.

1. To stash changes, just press the stash button in SourceTree
2. To bring your changes back, right click on the stash you want and click "Apply"
3. It will bring up a dialog box like this:
4. If you leave the "Delete after applying" checkbox unchecked, the stash will stay, even after it's been restored. I usually delete a stash after applying, but it can be useful to keep it if you want to apply it somewhere else.

Stashing can also be done on the command line with:

• git stash
• git stash pop

The first command stashes changes and the second restores the last stash and then deletes it

#### Going back in history

Say you want to go back to a certain state in your history, perhaps because that was the last time your code worked, or maybe to see if a certain stage also had a certain bug.

1. First, stash or commit all your current changes. If you don't, you could lose some or all of your work.
2. Then, in the Log/History tab of SourceTree, double click on the commit you would like to move to. You should get a dialog box like this:
3. That's to confirm that you want to move. Click yes.
4. Now your code should have changed to reflect the state of the commit you clicked.
5. If you want to make any changes here, first create a branch. That's covered in the next section.
6. To move back to the end, just double click the last commit you were on.

#### Branching

Consider that you and Joe are both trying to come up with a solution to a bug. Rather than both working in 'master' and potentially messing up each other's code, it would make more sense if you each had a separate instance of the code. This can be solved with branching.

So for example, you could work in a branch called, 'solution1' and Joe could work in a branch called 'solution2'. Then when everything is finished, you choose the branch you like best and use git to merge that branch back into 'master'.

So to start, let's create a branch.

1. Easy enough. Just click the "Branch" button http://i.imgur.com/BAmPmg2.png
2. Name the branch and press "Create Branch". Branch names can not contain spaces and are case sensitive
3. You should now be in your new branch. Any commits you do will commit to this branch.

To move to another branch, or "checkout" a branch, simply double click the branch in your commit history or double click the branch in the branch list in the left column

Now that you've committed some changes to another branch, let's merge it back into master

1. Double click on master to check it out
2. Right click on the last commit of the branch you would like to merge in and select "Merge..."
3. Click "Ok"
4. If there are no conflicts, the merge will be successful and master will contain all the changes from the other branch
5. Remember to push!

Well, that's pretty much all the basics. There are many many many more things you can do with Git, but you can worry about that when you the situation arises.

You are more than welcome to leave a comment if you have any questions or if you have any suggestions for improving what I've written or the structure of how it's organized. Also, please let me know if you find any errors.

Have fun coding!
-RichieSams